Mechanical and Durability Performance of Lateritic Clay Soil Stabilized with Bitumen Emulsion and Iron Ore Tailings for Pavement Subbase Construction
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63746/njtd.v23i2.4669Keywords:
Bitumen Emulsion, California Bearing Ratio, Durability Index, Iron Ore Tailings, Laterite stabilization, Pavement Subbase, Unconfined Compressive StrengthAbstract
Lateritic clay soils, prevalent across tropical sub-Saharan Africa, present significant challenges for pavement construction due to their high plasticity (liquid limit of 56%, plasticity index of 24%) and low bearing capacity (CBR of 18.5%), necessitating stabilisation for subbase use. This study explores a novel stabilisation approach combining cationic bitumen emulsion (K3-65) with iron ore tailings (IOT) to identify an optimal, cost-effective mix for tropical pavement subbase applications. A full factorial experimental design was implemented, testing 16 mix proportions with bitumen emulsion ranging from 2–10% and IOT from 10–30%. Mechanical performance was evaluated at 7, 14, and 28 days through California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), and Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) tests, using a total of 432 specimens. Comprehensive durability assessments included wet-dry mass loss, retained UCS (Durability Index), hydraulic conductivity, and moisture susceptibility via the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR). Material characterisation, Atterberg limits, grain size, XRF, and SEM-EDS were performed on raw materials to elucidate stabilisation mechanisms. Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA (?=0.05) and Tukey's HSD test confirmed that mix proportions significantly influenced all performance metrics (p<0.001). The optimal formulation, identified as 4% bitumen emulsion with 20% IOT (Mix M5), achieved substantial improvements over the untreated soil: a 28-day CBR of 28.6% (+55%), UCS of 17.3 MPa (+182%), and ITS of 3.9 MPa. Crucially, this mix uniquely satisfied all durability thresholds, exhibiting a durability index of 88.1%, hydraulic conductivity of 6.4×10?? cm/s, and a TSR of 88.7%, surpassing the AASHTO T283 minimum of 80%. These findings establish the 4% bitumen emulsion + 20% IOT combination as a technically viable, lower-carbon alternative to conventional cement stabilisation. The study recommends this stabilised mix for subbase construction at a compacted thickness of 150–200 mm, with a minimum 14-day curing period before opening to traffic.
References
Al?mohammedawi, A., & Mollenhauer, K. (2022). Current Research and Challenges in Bitumen Emulsion Manufacturing and Its Properties. Materials 2022, Vol. 15, Page 2026, 15(6), 2026. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA15062026
Babatunde, A. Q., Oshioname, E. A., Junwolo, O. K., & Paul, Y. (2020). Effect of Elapsed Time after Mixing on the Strength Properties of Lime–Iron Ore Tailings Treated Black Cotton Soil as a Road Construction Material. Infrastructures 2020, Vol. 5, Page 89, 5(11), 89. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures5110089
Bommi, S., Parameswari, E., Dhevagi, P., Janaki, P., Davamani, V., Sebastian, S. P., Suganthy, M., Krishnan, R., & Thirugnanasambandham, K. (2025). Transforming mining waste into resources: a review on sustainable construction and agricultural utilization. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2025 48:2, 48(2), 54-. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-025-02915-w
Dhar, S., & Hussain, M. (2021). The strength and microstructural behavior of lime stabilized subgrade soil in road construction. International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 15(4), 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2019.1598623
Ezreig, A. M. A., Ismail, M. A. M., & Ehwailat, K. I. A. (2022). A state of review: challenges and techniques of laterite soil stabilisation using chemical, economical, and eco-friendly materials. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 7(3), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/S41062-022-00821-Z/METRICS
Junior, P., & Franks, D. M. (2022). CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. Routledge Handbook of the Extractive Industries and Sustainable Development, 228–246. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003001317-14
Kaze, C. R., Lecomte-Nana, G. L., Kamseu, E., Camacho, P. S., Yorkshire, A. S., Provis, J. L., Duttine, M., Wattiaux, A., & Melo, U. C. (2021). Mechanical and physical properties of inorganic polymer cement made of iron-rich laterite and lateritic clay: A comparative study. Cement and Concrete Research, 140, 106320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106320
Latifi, A., Hayati, P., & Goli, A. (2025). Advancing pavement preservation: Comprehensive analysis and optimization of microsurfacing mixtures with stabilizers, bitumen types, emulsifiers, and fiber impacts. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 22, e04622. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSCM.2025.E04622
Mizher, D., Tsang, H. H., & Disfani, M. M. (2024). Effects of bitumen on shear strength parameters of soil-rubber mixtures. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 20(6), e03094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03094
Sam, D. K., Nyomboi, T., Kanali, C., & M’tulatia, M. (2024). Performance of Bitumen Emulsion Mixtures utilized as Gravel Road Base incorporating Lateritic Clay Soil and Calcined Sugarcane Bagasse Ash Filler. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 14(5), 17140–17148. https://doi.org/10.48084/ETASR.8377
Sharma, A., Boora, A., & Kumar, Y. (2025). Failure Analysis of Flexible Pavement and Preventive Measures. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, 25(2), 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11668-025-02150-6/METRICS
Yaghoubi, E., Ghorbani, B., Saberian, M., van Staden, R., Guerrieri, M., & Fragomeni, S. (2024). Strength and resilient modulus characteristics of emulsion-stabilised demolition wastes in pavement structures. Journal of Building Engineering, 82, 108257. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2023.108257
Yan, P., Ma, Z., Li, H., Gong, P., Liu, Z., Han, J., Xu, M., & Hua, S. (2024). Evaluation of the shrinkage properties and crack resistance performance of cement-stabilized pure coal-based solid wastes as pavement base materials. Construction and Building Materials, 421, 135680. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2024.135680
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Nigerian Journal of Technological Development
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
In accordance with the Copyright Act of 1976, which became effective January 1, 1978, the following statement signed by each author must accompany the manuscript submitted: "I, the undersigned author, transfer all copyright ownership of the manuscript referenced above to the Nigerian Journal of Technological Development, in the event the work is published. I warrant that the article is original, does not infringe upon any copyright or other proprietary right of any third party, is not under consideration by another journal, and has not been published previously. I have reviewed and approved the submitted version of the manuscript and agree to its publication in the Nigerian Journal of Technological Development." A copyright transfer form can be downloaded from the NJTD Website (http://njtd.com.ng/index.php/njtd). Author(s) will be consulted, whenever possible, regarding republication of material. All authors must have access to the data presented, and the authors and sponsor (if applicable) must agree to share original data with the editor if requested.
